Chapter 1: Avoiding Sentence Error
It is important for us to know how to avoid these kind of sentence errors like sentence fragments, run-ons, misplaced and dangling modifiers. But let’s define what are these first. Fragments are incomplete sentences that are presented as complete sentences. Run-ons are two or more sentences that have been incorrectly joined. Dangling modifiers are misplaced parts of a sentence that usually end up causing confusion in readers.
II. Content
Sentence fragments are another common error. A sentence fragment is a group of words, not a complete sentence. Remember that to be a complete sentence, a group of words must have a subject and a verb and must express a complete idea. Thus a group of words must not depend on the sentence before it or after it to provide a complete idea.
Incorrect Examples:
Ran to the car. (This is a fragment that is lacking a subject.)
The woman at the bus stop. (This is a fragment that is lacking a main verb.)
Behaving badly. (This is a fragment that is lacking a subject or a main verb.)
When one of the car's tires went flat. (This is a subordinate clause.)
Correcting Fragments Created when phrases and subordinate clauses are punctuated as if they were complete sentences, fragments can be corrected by adding the information that is missing. To rectify fragments, add a subject to the sentence that is missing a subject, add a verb to the sentence that is missing a verb, and connect a subordinate clause to a main clause to create a complete sentence. The following examples are the previous fragments corrected to read as complete sentences:
Incorrect: Ran to the car.
Correct: She ran to the car.
Incorrect: The woman at the bus stop.
Correct: The woman stood at the bus stop.
Incorrect: Behaving badly.
Correct: The students were behaving badly.
Incorrect: When one of the car's tires went flat.
Correct: When one of the...
Chapter 2: Level of Usage
Chapter 3: Verb Usage
The subject-verb agreement essentially means that if the singular form of the subject is used, the singular form of any verb must be used when referring to it. Likewise, if a plural subject is being described, a plural verb must be used. The simplest form of this rule governs sentences such as "He smokes," which uses a single subject "he" and the single form of the verb, "smokes." If this sentence was intended to speak about multiple people, the correct form would be "they smoke." This is done by changing the subject to a plural and the verb to the plural form.
Active and Passive
Sentences which include verbs can be presented in either passive or active form. Passive form is used in more formal situations, such as scientific articles, and the active form is used in informal situations. Passive sentences occur frequently in the English language, but the basic rules for when to use them state that they can be used when the action is more important than the person or thing that did it, and when the agent of a particular action isn't known. The passive sentence "German is spoken in the classroom" has an active counterpart of "We speak German in the classroom."
Use modal verbs when you need to express ability to do something, when you are requesting permission to do something or when you are obligated to do something. The modal verb "can" implies the ability to complete a particular task, such as "I can correctly use modal verbs." It can also be used to indicate probability or grant permission. "May" is used to request permission to do something, such as "May I use a modal verb in this sentence?" Finally, "must" is used when you are obligated to do something, such as "you must use a modal verb to state that you are able to do something." "Must" can also be used for other purposes, such as to make a strong recommendation.
Chapter 4: Pronoun Usage
A pronoun is a word used to stand for (or take the place of) a noun.
A pronoun should refer clearly to one, clear, unmistakable noun coming before the pronoun. This noun is called the pronoun’s antecedent.
Unfortunately, it is very easy to create a sentence that uses a pronoun WITHOUT a clear, unmistakable noun antecedent.
Example:
The pronoun it does not have a clear noun antecedent.
As a result, the reader cannot know for sure whether Mabel sold the disk or the cabinet. The pronoun reference is faulty here because the pronoun it has two antecedents.
Such errors, called FAULTY or VAGUE PRONOUN REFERENCE, can confuse readers and obscure the intended meaning.
There are three major pronoun reference errors.
Error #1: TOO MANY ANTECEDENTS
A pronoun should have only one antecedent. That antecedent should be clear and unmistakable.
Look at this sentence:
Anyone who reads this sentence would not know which item was to be fixed.
Does it refer to the radio or the car? The answer is unclear.
In the above example, faulty pronoun reference occurs because the pronoun it has two possible noun antecedents.
To fix the sentence, substitute a noun for the pronoun.
Here is another example of faulty pronoun reference caused by more than one noun antecedent:
The pronoun reference is unclear: Who will get the bonus - the supervisors or the workers? They could refer to either group.
In this example, the best way to fix the pronoun reference problem is to rephrase the sentence.
Error #2: HIDDEN ANTECEDENTS
Faulty pronoun reference errors also occur when the pronoun's antecedent functions as an adjective rather than a noun.
In such cases, the true antecedent is "hidden" or obscured from the reader because it has been subordinated to another noun.
The reader of this sentence might think that the dish was being eaten because dish appears to be the antecedent for the pronoun it.
Obviously, people do not eat dishes. What this writer means to say is, "We were tired of eating candy."
However, candy cannot be the antecedent for it because candy, situated in front of the noun dish, is acting like an adjective. Only nouns can be antecedents.
Here is another example of faulty pronoun reference caused by a hidden antecedent:
Obviously, she refers to Mary since a house would NOT be able to answer a phone.
However, Mary's modifies house - Mary's is a hidden antecedent and, thus, is not clear.
Still another way to repair this error is to rephrase the sentence.
Error #3: NO ANTECEDENT AT ALL
Another kind of faulty / vague pronoun reference problem occurs when writers use a pronoun without giving the pronoun any antecedent at all.
Example:
In this example, the pronoun they has NO noun antecedent to which it can refer.
Here is another example of a pronoun without any antecedent at all.
In this example, the pronoun it has no antecedent to which it can refer.
The reader knows that Mrs. Smith is "wealthy," but it cannot refer to wealthy because wealthy is not a noun.
There are at least two ways to repair this error.
With a noun (wealth) in the place of the pronoun (it), no antecedent is needed.
Now the pronoun it has a clear noun antecedent: money.
Here is another example of a pronoun without any antecedent.
It, which appears at the very beginning of the sentence, has no noun antecedent at all. In addition, the construction It says in the paper is unnecessarily wordy.
We can repair this error by writing a more DIRECT version of "It says in the paper."
Example:
Another way to repair the "It says in the paper" error is to rephrase this part of the sentence.
Example:
Both methods of repairing this faulty/vague pronoun error eliminate the pronoun and, thus, eliminate the need for an antecedent.
Below, another example shows how this error in pronoun reference occurs when a pronoun is used to stand for (refer to) a whole group of words INSTEAD OF one clear noun antecedent.
The word which has no single, clear antecedent.
Instead, it refers to the entire clause - "I did not attend the rally."
However, a pronoun must always refer to a single, clear, unmistakable NOUN ANTECEDENT.
We can repair this error in at least two ways.
Here is another example of faulty pronoun reference where a pronoun is asked to refer to a whole group of words instead of a clear, single noun antecedent.
The problem here is This. Its antecedent is the entire preceding sentence.
The reader cannot be sure whether Howard is very angry because:
- 1. Meg telephoned,
- 2. Meg telephoned yesterday, or
- 3. Meg had not attended the meeting the day before.
There are at least two ways to repair this error and create a clear antecedent for this:
Chapter 5: Subject and Verb Agreement
The subject and verb must agree in number: both must be singular, or both must be plural. Problems occur in the present tense because one must add an -s or -es at the end of the verb when the subjects or the entity performing the action is a singular third person: he, she, it, or words for which these pronouns could substitute.
Notice the difference between singular and plural forms in the following examples:
Singular |
Plural |
| The student sings. (He or she sings) | Your children sing. (They sing) |
| The bird does migrate. (It does) | Those birds do migrate. (They do) |
In order to find out if your subject and verb agree, you need to be able to identify the subject of your sentence. Here are some helpful hints that will help you to decipher where your subject is and where it is not.
Where is my subject?
- Most likely, your verb will agree with the first noun to the left of the verb:
| The Supreme Court judge decides the appropriate penalty. |
Subject: judge |
Verb: decides |
| The committee members were satisfied with the resolution. |
Subject: members |
Verb: were |
- Occasionally, a sentence has the subject after the verb instead of before it. This strategy is often used for poetic effect.
| Over the ripples glides a small canoe. |
Subject: a small canoe |
Verb: glides |
| There was a well-known writer at the meeting. |
Subject: a well-known writer |
Verb: was |
- You will not find the subject in a modifying phrase (MP), a phrase that starts with a preposition, a gerund, or a relative pronoun and that modifies the meaning of the noun or subject under discussion.
| The group of students is going on a field trip. |
Subject: the group |
MP: of students |
Verb: is |
| The survey covering seven colleges reveals a growth in enrollment. |
Subject: the survey |
MP: covering seven colleges |
Verb: reveals |
| The speaker whom you saw at the lecture is one of the state senators from Minnesota. |
Subject: the speaker |
MP: whom you saw at the lecture |
Verb: is |
- If subjects are joined by and, they are considered plural.
| The quarterback and the coach are having a conference. |
Subject: the quarterback and the coach |
Verb: are having |
- If subjects are joined by or or nor, the verb should agree with the closer subject.
| Either the actors or the director is at fault. |
Subjects: actors, director |
Verb: is |
| Either the director or the actors are at fault. |
Subjects: director, actors |
Verb: are |
- The relative pronouns (who, whom, which, and that) are either singular or plural, depending on the words they refer to.
| The sales manager is a good researcher who spends a great amount of time surfing the Web for information. |
Subject: the sales manager |
Verbs: is, spends |
| Sales managers are good researchers who spend a great amount of time surfing the Web for information. |
Subject: sales managers |
Verbs: are, spend |
- Indefinite pronouns (someone, somebody, each, either one, everyone, or anyone) are considered singular and need singular verbs although they convey plural meaning.
| Anyone who wants to pursue higher education has to pass entrance exams. |
Subject: anyone |
Verbs: wants, has |
| Everyone on the committee is welcome to express his/her ideas. |
Subject: everyone |
Verb: is |
- A few nouns can be either plural or singular, depending on whether they mean a group or separate individuals. These words are rarely used as plurals in modern writing.
| The jury is sequestered. |
| Subject: jury | Verb: is |
| The jury are having an argument. |
Subject: jury |
Verb: are having |
- A few subjects look plural but are really singular or vice versa.
| The news of the discovery is spreading. |
Subject: news |
Verb: is |
| The mass media have publicized the facts. |
Subject: mass media |
Verb: have publicized |
| The data amaze everyone. |
Subject: data |
Verb: amaze |
Chapter 6: Pronoun and Antecedent Agreement
Pronouns are a handy way to keep from repeating nouns too much. Consider the following:
- When Big Dog snuck under the fence, Big Dog ran to the dumpster.
- When Big Dog snuck under the fence, he ran to the dumpster.
Clearly the second sentence sounds better.
When we talked about subject-verb agreement, we said that the subject and the verbmust agree in number. That is, you have to make sure that both are singular or both are plural. The same goes for pronouns and antecedents.
A pronoun renames (takes the place of) a noun that comes before it.
An antecedent is what we call the noun that comes before the pronoun.
Two examples should be enough:
- I get worried when the neighbors let their dog out.
- The dog goes wild, and he always messes up my front yard.
In number 1, neighbors is the antecedent; their is the pronoun. They agree becauseboth are plural. In number 2, dog is the antecedent, and he is the pronoun. They agreesince both are singular. If you are having problems with pronoun-antecedent agreement, underline all your pronouns; then, locate the antecedent for each. Make sure that both are the same in number. That's all you have to do.
With subject-verb agreement, we also talked about indefinite pronouns ("-one," "-body," and "-thing" words). With pronouns, we need to look at the "-one" and "-body" words again. (Also include "either," "neither," and "each.") These are always singular, and that should be easy enough to remember. But most beginning writers seem to have trouble with them. Part of the problem is the way we speak. Few would notice anything wrong if they heard someone say,
- Everyone needs to take their dog to the vet regularly.
- Everybody was enjoying their vacation.
These sound okay, right? Maybe so, but they're wrong if you're writing. Words like "everyone" and "everybody" are always singular, so the plural pronoun their can't agree with them. The correct
versions are:
- Everyone needs to take his dog to the vet regularly.
- Everybody was enjoying her vacation.
You could use his or her in either sentence, depending upon the context.
Chapter 7: Adjective and Adverb Usage
Rule 1
Generally, if a word answers the question how, it is an adverb. If it can have an -ly added to it, place it there.
Examples:
She thinks slow/slowly.
She thinks how? slowly.
She is a slow/slowly thinker.
Slow does not answer how, so no -ly is attached. Slow is an adjective here.
She thinks fast/fastly.
Fast answers the question how, so it is an adverb. But fast never has an -ly attached to it.
We performed bad/badly.
Badly describes how we performed.
Rule 2
A special -ly rule applies when four of the senses - taste, smell, look, feel - are the verbs. Do not ask if these senses answer the question how to determine if -ly should be attached. Instead, ask if the sense verb is being used actively. If so, use the -ly.
Examples:
Roses smell sweet/sweetly.
Do the roses actively smell with noses? No, so no -ly.
The woman looked angry/angrily.
Did the woman actively look with eyes or are we describing her appearance? We are only describing appearance, so no -ly.
The woman looked angry/angrily at the paint splotches.
Here the woman did actively look with eyes, so the -ly is added.
She feels bad/badly about the news.
She is not feeling with fingers, so no -ly.
Good vs. Well
Rule 3
The word good is an adjective, while well is an adverb.
Examples:
You did a good job.
Good describes the job.
You did the job well.
Well answers how.
You smell good today.
Describes your odor, not how you smell with your nose, so follow with the adjective. You smell well for someone with a cold.
You are actively smelling with a nose here, so follow with the adverb.
Rule 4
When referring to health, use well rather than good.
Example:
I do not feel well. You do not look well today.
Note: You may use good with feel when you are not referring to health.
Example:
I feel good about my decision to learn Spanish.
Rule 5
A common error in using adjectives and adverbs arises from using the wrong form for comparison. For instance, to describe one thing we would say poor, as in, "She is poor." To compare two things, we should say poorer, as in, "She is the poorer of the two women." To compare more than two things, we should say poorest, as in, "She is the poorest of them all."
Examples:
One
|
Two
|
Three or More
|
sweet
|
sweeter
|
sweetest
|
bad
|
worse
|
worst
|
efficient*
|
more efficient*
|
most efficient*
|
*Usually with words of three or more syllables, don't add -er or -est. Use more or most in front of the words.
|
Rule 6
Never drop the -ly from an adverb when using the comparison form.
Correct:
She spoke quickly.
She spoke more quickly than he did.
Incorrect:
She spoke quicker than he did.
Correct:
Talk quietly.
Talk more quietly.
Incorrect:
Talk quieter.
Rule 7
When this, that, these, and those are followed by nouns, they are adjectives. When they appear without a noun following them, they are pronouns.
Examples:
This house is for sale.
This is an adjective here.
This is for sale.
This is a pronoun here.
Rule 8
This and that are singular, whether they are being used as adjectives or as pronouns. Thispoints to something nearby while that points to something "over there."
Examples:
This dog is mine.
That dog is hers.
This is mine.
That is hers.
Rule 9
These and those are plural, whether they are being used as adjectives or as pronouns.These points to something nearby while those points to something "over there."
Examples:
These babies have been smiling for a long time.
These are mine. Those babies have been crying for hours. Those are yours.
Rule 10
Use than to show comparison. Use then to answer the question when.
Examples:
I would rather go skiing than rock climbing.
First we went skiing; then we went rock climbing.
Chapter 8: Miscellaneous Problem and Usage
Miscellaneous Problems
Leaks in Sealed Batteries
Sealed batteries normally operate at slight positive pressure. They are fitted with overpressure valves which operate should the battery be overcharged. Defective valves are possible, and a valve can open under an overcharge and not reclose. This failure is usually recorded by a fine white powder that exits through the valve and is deposited on the case.
The positive and negative posts are sealed around their exit from the case. Loss of this seal can cause the battery to dry out and become worthless. Loss of a seal around the post usually turns the post black. If there is any doubt about the seals, brush a little soapy water around the post and then push on the battery cases. If any bubbles appear, return the battery to your dealer.
With this academic you will know to talk clearly with a correct grammar and also to develop your creative expression!....
